After changes in the family structure, parents and children should all be ensured of housing
In case of a change in the family structure (such as separation), one or both parents are likely to move out of the matrimonial home. Parents may experience economic insecurity and conflicts about property and housing.
The main aim is to secure safe housing for both parents and children. In order to ensure this, parents can temporarily move into their relatives’ households. For example, the house of their parents, siblings or other extended family members. The extended family can provide support until both parents are able to stand on their own feet again
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
All family members should have suitable housing. In cases where families are separating, it is very important to ensure that parents and children both have a safe house to live in.
Try to arrange both new homes close to each other. If possible, parents should live close to each other so that children can have frequent contact with both parents.
Siblings should stay together. Do not split up siblings in cases of separation into different households.
Follow up on new housing arrangements. Ensure agreements are working for all family members and make changes if necessary.
Other suggested practices:
Plan your housing finance together. Have a clear and transparent financing plan from the beginning of owning or renting a property.
Both spouses should share the responsibility for housing. Both parents should contribute to the house whether financially or in-kind. From maintenance and construction to household chores, both the man and the woman should be involved.
Make sure children are safe. In cases of domestic abuse remove the children from the abusive parent. Ensure that both houses are comfortable and safe environment for children.
Married couples should be encouraged to co-own the matrimonial home. A matrimonial home is a shared home for both parents and children. Therefore joint-ownership is encouraged.
Agree on how to handle housing arrangements. Housing arrangements should be mutually agreed upon. Prenuptial arrangements should be encouraged to specify who owns what property before marriage.
In cases of separation, jointly decide on fair compensation for jointly owned property. The value of the house should be estimated by someone with expertise in valuation. One party could then buy the house against this price or it can be jointly decided to sell the property.
Both the women and the man should access land in order to support themselves. When both men and women and children are dependent on their land for food and living, they should both have access to this. The family and community should ensure that all family members have access to land and suitable housing.
Note: Ugandan law does not regulate prenuptial agreements.
Resources and Methodology
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
The three main sources used for this particular subject are:
Matthew R. Sanders, W. Kim Halford and Brett C. Behrens, Parental Divorce and Premarital Couple Communication (1999) Tamara D. Afifi, Tara McManus, Susan Hutchinson and Birgitta Baker, Inappropriate Parental Divorce Disclosures, the Factors that Prompt them, and their Impact on Parents’ and Adolescents’ Well-Being (2007) Paul Schrodt and Tamara D. Afifi, Communication Processes that Predict Young Adults’ Feelings of Being Caught and their Associations with Mental Health and Family Satisfaction (2007)
The article by Sanders, Halford and Behrens is based on a detailed observational analysis of couples’ interaction. The article by Afifi, McManus, Hutchinson and Baker bases its findings mostly on clinical and empirical evidence. The article by Schrodt and Afifi uses both empirical and meta-analysis to support its findings. According to the HiiL Methodology: Assessment of Evidence and Recommendations, the strength of this evidence is classified as ‘low’ to ‘moderate’.
Desirable outcomes
It is important to note that, based on uncertainty reduction theory, children need some information about the separation in order to reduce their uncertainty about the state of their family (Afifi, McManus, p. 80).
Undesirable outcomesResearch has shown that parents’ inappropriate disclosures give children psychological distress, physical ailments and feelings of being caught between their parents (Afifi, McManus, p. 79). Examples of inappropriate information are: negative information about the other parent (including complaints on lack of child-support), sensitive information and information judged not to be suitable (such as on financial issues, the reason for separation and personal concerns of the parent), and information that makes children feel caught between their parents (Schrodt, p. 209).
If children are completely uninformed about the separation, they can feel deceived, which can produce mistrust, diminished satisfaction with their parental communication, and a fear of establishing committed romantic relationships upon maturity (Afifi, McManus, p. 80). It can be difficult to for some parents to determine the fine line between disclosing the right amount of information and inappropriate information.
Balance of outcomes
In determining whether actively limiting disclosure of information to children about the other parent is more effective than sharing all information for their well-being, the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered. The available literature suggests that certain information is not to be disclosed for the sake of the wellbeing of the child. In particular, revealing negative information about one parent would have severe negative effect physically and psychologically in both the long and short term. This type of information is classified as ‘inappropriate’. However, it is important to keep in mind that children should be informed during the separation process.
RecommendationIn light of the undesired outcomes of revealing inappropriate information to children, we make the following recommendation: For the well-being of children, it is appropriate that parents disclose information on the separation, albeit in a considered and limited way.
Parents should make agreements on child support and, for the best interest of the child, support the other parent where needed
Both parents are responsible for costs of upbringing the child such as school fees, food, clothing and other expenses. It is important for parents to agree on child support. Parents should also be willing to support their children outside these agreements. Occasionally, children might need more food, clothing or other items than expected. Research shows that providing formal and informal child support benefits the wellbeing of children. Formal child support includes mutually agreed arrangements on financial contributions towards the costs of children. Informal child support may include other things from providing food, shelter, clothing, emotional support etc.
Legal base
Uganda Constitution, Article 32 Clause 4 Both parents are responsible for the upbringing of children and the costs related to this
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
Consider all options. Non-monetary contributions should be considered, not just financial agreements. These may include spending time with house chores, support with homework, moral upbringing or other forms of support for children.
Both parents should be involved in the moral education of children. Both parents each play an important role in children’s development, even after separation or re-marriage.
Parents should together decide and agree on the school for the child. Parents should take the best interests of the child into account together and make a joint decision on the best schooling arrangement.
Both parents should contribute to upbringing of children. Besides contributing to educational and other financial costs, the moral support and education of children should continue from both parents.
Other suggested practices:
Children might need a guardian. There may be cases where a parent is not in the picture. A guardian could be responsible for the upbringing arrangements for children.
Resources and Methodology3
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
- Formal and informal child support provided by non-residential parent
- Only formal child support provided by non-residential parent.
- No child support Formal child support payments are received through a welfare office (Greene and Moore, p. 159).
- Maureen R. Waller & Robert Plotnick, Effective Child Support Policy for Low-Income Families: Evidence from Street Level Research (2001)
- Paul R. Amato & Joan G. Gilbert, Nonresident Fathers and Children’s Well-being: A Meta-Analysis (1999)
- Lenna Nepomnyaschy, Child Support and Father-Child Contact: Testing Reciprocal Pathways (2007)
- Angela Greene & Kristin Moore, Nonresident Father Involvement and Child Well-Being Among Young Children in Families on Welfare (2000)
- Steven Garasky et al, Toward a Fuller Understanding of Nonresident Father Involvement: An Examination of Child Support, In-Kind Support, and Visitation (2009)
Desirable outcomes
Mothers who receive formal and informal support from fathers report fewer behavioral problems and higher levels of social and emotional adjustment for their children (Greene and Moore, p. 175).
Regarding the well-being of children, both formal and informal child support are positively associated with better ratings on the Personal Maturity Scale (an outcome variable used in this research, which focuses on the child’s emotional and behavioral development) (Greene and Moore, p. 175). Informal child support is associated with improvements in the child’s home environment (Greene and Moore, p. 176). Over time, informal support from the father may be associated with improvements in cognitive assessment scores and academic achievements for children.
Fathers who pay child support may want to see their children more, in order to oversee the allocation of their contributions (Nepomnyaschy p. 94). A stronger positive relationship exists between visitation and support provided by a nonresident father when that support is made informally to the child’s mother (Nepomnyaschy, p. 94).
Child support seeks to ensure that parents who live apart from their children contribute to their financial support in order to achieve specific goals such as poverty and financial insecurity reduction among children and their custodial parents. Child support also seeks to affirm the widely held belief that parents are morally and socially obligated to support their children (Waller & Plotnick, p. 89).
Child support is thought to have symbolic meaning, representing the non-resident parent’s care and concern to the child; and this may improve the child(ren)’s well-being beyond the effects of raising the child’s standard of living, to a psychological contribution (Garasky et al, p. 365).
Undesirable outcomes
Mothers mention that conflict may arise when the father begins to pay child support and stop supporting them informally or doing the “extras” for their children (Waller & Plotnick, p. 101). Moreover, these conflicts can make already difficult parenting arrangements more hostile and may lead to their dissolution (Waller & Plotnick, p. 99).
After low-income parents become involved with the formal system and a support order is established, concerns about how the system enforces support orders arise. Mothers often perceive it as ineffective in enforcing their rights to support. Fathers become frustrated with the system’s insensitivity to their changeable economic circumstances and its use of criminal sanctions to enforce compliance. These perceived problems with the enforcement process are likely to contribute to poor parents’ reluctance to participate in the formal system in the first place (Waller & Plotnick, p. 101).
Punitive child support enforcement policies may drive fathers who are incapable of providing support to abandon their families altogether (Nepomnyaschy, p. 109).
To some fathers, formal child support represents a forced payment rather than an authentic expression of paternal love (Waller & Plotnick, p. 100). Some women agree with this assessment of child support, as both tainted and unreliable because it does not derive from an emotional bond (Waller & Plotnick, p. 100-101).
Balance of outcomes
In determining whether providing formal and informal support by the non-residential parent is more effective than providing only formal child support by the non-residential parent, for the financial well-being of persons the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered.
Although some parents sometimes did not comply with child support regulations, these studies suggest that they strongly endorse the belief that fathers have an obligation to support their biological children and be involved in their lives. All studies indicate that communities recognise in-kind contributions such as diapers, toys, clothing and shoes as valid expressions of this paternal obligation (Waller & Plotnick, p. 100).
In sum, the effect on well-being of the desirable outcomes are more far-reaching than the effects on wellbeing of undesirable outcomes.
Recommendation
Taking into account the clear balance towards the desired outcomes, and the strength of the evidence, we make the following recommendation: Receiving both formal and informal child support is more effective than receiving only formal child support.
Parents should be careful about the information that they share and how they deal with conflict in front of their children.
When parents are facing a family conflict such as separation, they should always think about the best interests of their children. The family situation can be very difficult and emotionally challenging. Therefore, parents should know how to communicate.
The information that parents share with their children should be appropriate and constructive. Parents should not share negative information about the other parent, such as complaints on lack of child-support. Parents should not share sensitive information such as on financial issues, the reason for divorce and personal concerns. Sharing such inappropriate information with children negatively affect their wellbeing.
Children should be able to make sense of their parent’s dispute. At the same time, parents should limit the exposure of their conflict. Children’s exposure to marital conflict can place them in an uncomfortable position as mediators, which negatively influences their wellbeing
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
Use constructive communication. Rather than use hurtful or insulting words about the other partner, be positive in communication with children. Try to give children confidence. Show them that the changes will be in their best interest.
Beware of sharing information about emotions. Avoid sharing information about frustration with specific actions of other family members.
Ensure that children know they are not responsible in any way. Let children know that the issues between parents are between parents only. Explain that both parents love their children.
Give children room to ask about the new family situation. Give children the space to ask follow-up questions. Ask them to summarize what you have communicated to ensure it is well understood. Avoid dismissing ‘tricky’ questions. Follow-up on communication regularly to make sure children are processing the information well.
Take the time to explain the situation. Make sure children understand the changing family situation and the effect it may have on the family structure.
Avoid involving the child in the disagreements. Be open about the misunderstandings or disagreements in a friendly manner. Do not ask them to take sides in the conflict. Do not use them in bargaining situations.
Avoid involving children in sensitive conversations. Children should not be present in conversations of sensitive nature, this goes for any dialogue, negotiation, mediation or court hearing.
Keep children away from sensitive conversations between parents. Children should not be present in conversations of sensitive nature, this might include conversations during dialogue/negotiation, mediation or court hearings.
Do not share sensitive information about children in their presence. Children should not be present when sensitive information is shared between parents.
Do not use or manipulate children in a conflict. Conflicts between parents should not influence the ability of both parents to be a part of their children’s lives. Don’t ask them to choose sides.
Assess the communication levels of the child. Depending on age and maturity of children, they may need different communication styles. Make sure that communication is tailored to the age and situation of the children.
Focus on what is important and what is in the best interest of the child. Think in terms of providing solutions for children.
Seek help before the conflict affects children’s health. If a child is showing signs of (mental) health problems as a consequence of the conflict, seek professional help on time.
Encourage children to build a strong relationship with both parents. Enable the child to build his/her own relationship with the other parent without influencing that relationship.
Other suggested best practices:
Ensure the children are informed and their voices are heard. Give the child a voice. Listen to them and inform them. Use language that children understand.
There should be no gender bias in dealing with children. Both parents should be involved with both their son and daughter. No parent can give preference to any of the genders.
Make sure children’s emotional needs are well addressed. For example during puberty children may need extra support.
Be mindful of privacy of children (especially teenagers). Do not freely share sensitive information about children to other members outside of the family.
Disclosure of information to children
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
- Matthew R. Sanders, W. Kim Halford and Brett C. Behrens, Parental Divorce and Premarital Couple Communication (1999)
- Tamara D. Afifi, Tara McManus, Susan Hutchinson and Birgitta Baker, Inappropriate Parental Divorce Disclosures, the Factors that Prompt them, and their Impact on Parents’ and Adolescents’ Well-Being (2007)
- Paul Schrodt and Tamara D. Afifi, Communication Processes that Predict Young Adults’ Feelings of Being Caught and their Associations with Mental Health and Family Satisfaction (2007)
Desirable outcomes
It is important to note that, based on uncertainty reduction theory, children need some information about the separation in order to reduce their uncertainty about the state of their family (Afifi, McManus, p. 80).
Undesirable outcomes
Research has shown that parents’ inappropriate disclosures give children psychological distress, physical ailments and feelings of being caught between their parents (Afifi, McManus, p. 79). Examples of inappropriate information are: negative information about the other parent (including complaints on lack of child-support), sensitive information and information judged not to be suitable (such as on financial issues, the reason for separation and personal concerns of the parent), and information that makes children feel caught between their parents (Schrodt, p. 209).
If children are completely uninformed about the separation, they can feel deceived, which can produce mistrust, diminished satisfaction with their parental communication, and a fear of establishing committed romantic relationships upon maturity (Afifi, McManus, p. 80). It can be difficult to for some parents to determine the fine line between disclosing the right amount of information and inappropriate information.
Balance of outcomes
In determining whether actively limiting disclosure of information to children about the other parent is more effective than sharing all information for their well-being, the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered.
The available literature suggests that certain information is not to be disclosed for the sake of the wellbeing of the child. In particular, revealing negative information about one parent would have severe negative effect physically and psychologically in both the long and short term. This type of information is classified as ‘inappropriate’.
However, it is important to keep in mind that children should be informed during the separation process.
Recommendation
In light of the undesired outcomes of revealing inappropriate information to children, we make the following recommendation: For the well-being of children, it is appropriate that parents disclose information on the separation, albeit in a considered and limited way
This section provides recommendations on fair living arrangements for children, for example in case of separation. They are intended to provide better social development and academic achievements. The recommendations are divided into 3 separate age categories, reflecting the different needs of the age groups.
Infants and toddlers (0-4 years old). For children it is important to be able to stay at both their parents’ houses. This enhances emotional involvement of parents with their children, which benefits the parent-child relationship. Close family relationships are essential to the wellbeing of the entire family.
Young children (5-9 years old). Both parents should support and have contact with their children during school week (Monday to Friday). This is beneficial to children’s academic achievements and wellbeing.
Adolescents (10-18 years old). Children should have a home at both their parent’s houses. International research suggests that shared residency adolescents are better off academically, emotionally and psychologically compared to sole residence children.
It must be ensured there is no indication or history of violence. If there is a risk of violence or abuse, this intervention is not recommended.
There should be a suitable housing situation and willingness from both parents to engage in such an arrangement
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
Encourage active (emotional) involvement. Both parents should be encouraged to play an active role in the lives of the children. This includes attending school, emotional support and help with homework.
Both parents should agree on visitations. Both parents should be well-informed about any visitations when they are happening.
Parents should provide oversight. Parents should have control over their children and be aware of where their children are and what is happening in their lives.
Involve a neutral decision-maker. In case parents cannot agree together in mediation, they should involve a neutral third party to make a decision for them.
Ongoing follow-up and after-care. Ensure that arrangements are working and that agreements are being respected.
Other suggested practices:
Ensure both homes are safe and child-friendly. In cases where there is a risk of domestic abuse towards children by parents or new spouses, children should be removed until it is safe again.
Involve role models where needed. For example, in cases where one parent is unwilling to play a significant role, a respected role model can intervene.
Ensure there is close contact with both parents. Young children should not necessarily be in boarding schools. They should stay in the family home until a reasonable age. If they are in boarding school then both parents should visit regularly and be involved.
Involve children’s needs in decisions. Children’s wishes on living and visiting arrangements should be considered
.
Disclosure of information to children
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
- Matthew R. Sanders, W. Kim Halford and Brett C. Behrens, Parental Divorce and Premarital Couple Communication (1999)
- Tamara D. Afifi, Tara McManus, Susan Hutchinson and Birgitta Baker, Inappropriate Parental Divorce Disclosures, the Factors that Prompt them, and their Impact on Parents’ and Adolescents’ Well-Being (2007)
- Paul Schrodt and Tamara D. Afifi, Communication Processes that Predict Young Adults’ Feelings of Being Caught and their Associations with Mental Health and Family Satisfaction (2007)
Desirable outcomes
It is important to note that, based on uncertainty reduction theory, children need some information about the separation in order to reduce their uncertainty about the state of their family (Afifi, McManus, p. 80).
Undesirable outcomes
Research has shown that parents’ inappropriate disclosures give children psychological distress, physical ailments and feelings of being caught between their parents (Afifi, McManus, p. 79). Examples of inappropriate information are: negative information about the other parent (including complaints on lack of child-support), sensitive information and information judged not to be suitable (such as on financial issues, the reason for separation and personal concerns of the parent), and information that makes children feel caught between their parents (Schrodt, p. 209).
If children are completely uninformed about the separation, they can feel deceived, which can produce mistrust, diminished satisfaction with their parental communication, and a fear of establishing committed romantic relationships upon maturity (Afifi, McManus, p. 80). It can be difficult to for some parents to determine the fine line between disclosing the right amount of information and inappropriate information.
Balance of outcomes
In determining whether actively limiting disclosure of information to children about the other parent is more effective than sharing all information for their well-being, the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered.
The available literature suggests that certain information is not to be disclosed for the sake of the wellbeing of the child. In particular, revealing negative information about one parent would have severe negative effect physically and psychologically in both the long and short term. This type of information is classified as ‘inappropriate’.
However, it is important to keep in mind that children should be informed during the separation process.
Recommendation
In light of the undesired outcomes of revealing inappropriate information to children, we make the following recommendation: For the well-being of children, it is appropriate that parents disclose information on the separation, albeit in a considered and limited way
Parents should communicate and cooperate with each other
They should try to interact, communicate and cooperate with each other. Communication is essential in order to transform and adapt to a new situation.
Parents should decide together on how often they interact or communicate about their children’s needs. Parents can discuss child-related issues in person on arranged times.
Examples of items to be discussed are:
- The children’s medical needs and educational needs;
- The children’s academic accomplishments and progress;
- The children’s personal problems;
- Special events;
- Personal problems that the children experience;
- Major decisions affecting children;
- Finances in regard to children;
- Problems in parenting;
- Decisions regarding children’s lives;
- Children’s adjustment.
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
Communicate at agreed moments. Parents should make a plan to speak about their problems face-to-face at specific moments, rather than reacting emotionally to things as they happen.
Use positive (body) language. Parents should not be aggressive or defensive in the way they communicate. They should be open and honest about their emotions but do it in a constructive way.
Show respect. The parties should make each other feel respected in order to be able to effectively communicate.
Other suggested practices:
Where appropriate, make sure there is eye-contact – In some cultures, eye-contact encourages truth and understanding.
Resources and Methodology
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
During the orientation process of the available literature, we were able to identify the following interventions:
- Mutual constructive communication
- Demand/withdraw communication
- Mutual avoidance
Mutual constructive communication is interactive, involves constructive problem-solving and focuses on avoiding conflict (Handbook, p. 203). Both parties try to engage in a mutual adaptive discussion (Diamond, p. 202). Demand/withdraw communication involves a pattern where one partner pursues more closeness and contact, while the other partner desires more distance and responds by withdrawing and avoiding (Handbook, p. 203). Mutual avoidance is typified by both partners avoiding communicating as much as possible (Handbook, p. 203). For the purpose of this topic, ‘mutual constructive communication’ will be compared with both ‘mutual avoidance’ and ‘demand/withdraw communication’ simultaneously.
The databases used are: HeinOnline, Westlaw, Wiley Online Library, JSTOR and Taylor & Francis.
For this PICO question, keywords used in the search strategy are: communication, spouses, patterns, rules, timing, divorce, children, relationship, parent.
The main source used for this particular subject is The Handbook of Family Communication, edited by Anita L. Vangelisi. Three chapters have been used in particular, these being:
Chapter 9, Communication in Divorced and Single-Parent Families, Julia M. Lewis, Judith S. Wallerstein and Linda Johnson-Reitz
Chapter 13, Mothers and Fathers Parenting Together, William J. Doherty and John M. Beaton
Chapter 19, Communication, ‘Conflict and the Quality of Family Relationships’, Alan Sillars, Daniel J. Canary and Melissa Tafoya
Other sources used:
Diamond and Brimhall, Communication During Conflict: Differences Between Individuals in First and Second Marriages (2013)
Guy Bodemann, Andrea Kaiser, Kurt Hahlweg and Gabriele Fehm-Wolfsdorf, Communication patterns during marital conflict: A cross-cultural replication (1998)
The Handbook of Family Communication presents an analysis of cutting-edge research and theory on family interaction. It integrates perspectives of researchers and practitioners. Chapter 9 is mostly based on large-scale observational studies, and a few meta-analyses that help to understand what happens when families separate. Chapter 13 and 19 mostly rely on observational studies. Evidence can be regarded as being low to moderate
Desirable outcomes
Communication between parents becomes more difficult and energy consuming after separation. Unexpected and overwhelming demands after separation results in less communication by the parents. Parents will need to communicate more often and effectively, so that the parenting styles of both parents are consistent (Handbook, p. 204). Research shows that mutual constructive communication is generally designated as the healthiest, most functional interactive pattern. Separated parents must be willing to interact, communicate and cooperate with each other regarding child-related issues, despite any feelings of rejection, remorse, bitterness, or anger. This is because parental responsibilities after separation continue to exist, and communication is essential to transform and adapt to accommodate to parents’ new roles (Handbook, p. 204).
The ability of separated parents to co-parent together, communicate about their children, to cooperate to set limits, to problem solve effectively and to provide consistent positive affective messages has a major influence on the ability of children to adjust after separation (Handbook, p. 205).
Undesirable outcomes
Mutual avoidance communication prevents the airing of thoughts and feelings surrounding relationship problems and impedes movement towards resolution (Diamond, p. 199).
Both avoidance and demand/withdrawal communication are correlated with lower relationship satisfaction (Bodenmann, p. 354).
Balance of outcomes
between parents is more effective than mutual avoidance, for their well-being, the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered.
The literature suggests that mutual constructive communication between parents is in the interest of the child. On the other hand, mutual avoidance and demand/withdrawal communication are correlated with lower relationship satisfaction and a lack of ability to move towards a resolution.
The balance is clearly towards the desired outcomes of mutual constructive communication.
Recommendation
Taking into account the balance towards the desired outcomes, the effect on children’s well-being and the strength of the evidence, we make the following recommendation: For the parents and children, mutual constructive communication between parents is effective than mutual avoidance, for their well-being.
Parents should love and nurture their child, at the same time they are demanding and in control
Parents should have high levels of control and maturity demands over their children, combined with high levels of nurturance. This means that they show warmth, support, effective monitoring, control, discipline, positive discussion and responsiveness to their children’s needs. Parents rely on positive sanctions to gain their child’s compliance and encourage their child to express himself when he disagrees. This is referred to as ‘authoritative parenting’. According to international research, authoritative parenting plays an important role in children’s academic performance.
There are 3 types of parenting that have been shown to have different effects on the wellbeing of children:
Authoritative parenting – Where parents have high demands from their children but are also loving and nurturing their emotional needs. This is seen as the most effective type of parenting.
Permissive parenting – Where parents show love and care towards their children, but not give enough direction and guidance.
Authoritarian parenting – Parents are strict and demanding but are not supportive enough of the children’s emotional needs.
What practitioners say
Consistent with literature research:
Ensure child-friendly disciplining. Offer the child appropriate measures in disciplining actions. Avoid abusive actions that can harm a child.
Both parents should participate in education. Both parents should be involved with the school education of the child. They should both be aware of their situation at school and have contact with teachers, provide support with homework etc.
Parents shouldn’t favour children. Both girls and boys should be equally loved and supported by both parents.
Make sure that girls and boys are treated equally. There should be no discrimination in assigning resources and responsibilities to them, or in reprimanding them.
Take time to understand the needs of children. Parents should make sure they understand their children’s needs and provide for them.
Other suggested practices:
Make sure children are consulted about their education. Make sure they are safe and comfortable in their schools.
Try to learn more about parenting skills. Ask others to find out if there are resources that can help you to learn about good parenting. These could include radio broadcasts, books or gatherings
Resources and Methodology
- Most plausible interventions
- PICO question
- Search strategy
- Assessment and grading of evidence
- Recommendation
During the orientation process of the available literature, we were able to identify three interventions, these being:
- Authoritative parenting
- Authoritarian parenting
- Permissive parenting
Authoritative parenting is characterised by having high levels of control and maturity demands, combined with high levels of nurturance. These parents rely more on positive than negative sanctions to gain their child’s compliance and encourage their child to express himself/herself when the child disagrees (Handbook, p. 452).
Authoritarian parents display high levels of control along with low levels of clarity and nurturance. These parents rely on power-assertive forms of discipline. They are less likely than authoritative parents to provide reasons when attempting to alter their child’s behaviour and discourage expressions of the child’s disagreement (Handbook, p. 452).
Permissive parenting is characterised by parents who display low levels of control and maturity demands, combined with higher levels of nurturance. They are less likely than authoritative parents to enforce rules or structure for their child’s activities (Handbook, p. 452).
For the purpose of this PICO question, we compare authoritative parenting with the two other forms of parenting, because authoritative parenting shows a high level of demandingness and nurturance, while the other two parenting styles either have a low level of demandingness or nurturance (Handbook, p. 452).
The databases used are: HeinOnline, Westlaw, Wiley Online Library, JSTOR and Taylor & Francis, Peace Palace Library.
For this PICO question, keywords used in the search strategy are: parenting, upbringing, raising, arrangements, children, development, upgrowing, well-being, divorce.
The four main sources used for this particular subject are:
- Sanford M. Dornbusch, Philip L. Ritter, P. Herbert Leiderman, Donald F. Roberts and Michael J. Fraleigh, The Relation of Parenting Style to Adolescent School Performance (1987)
- Fletcher, Steinberg and Sellers, Adolescents’ well-being as a function of perceived interparental consistency (1999)
- The Handbook of Family Communication, edited by Anita L. Vangelisi, Chapters 9, 20 and 27 (2004)
- Erlanger A. Turner, Megan Chandler and Robbert W. Heffer, The Influence of Parenting Styles, Achievement Motivation and Self-Efficacy on Academic Performance in College Students (2009)
- Linda Nielsen, Shared Parenting After Divorce: A Review of Shared Residential Parenting Research” (2011)
These sources are largely based on an RCT and several observational studies. According to the HiiL Methodology: Assessment of Evidence and Recommendations, the strength of this evidence is classified as ‘low’ to ‘moderate’.
Desirable outcomes
For the child’s interest, authoritative parenting by both parents with warmth, support, effective monitoring, control, discipline, positive discussion and responsiveness to children’s needs is essential (Handbook, p. 204). Studies indicate the following:
Children of separated parents benefit the most when their father is actively engaged in their lives across a wide range of daily activities and when he has an authoritative rather than permissive or authoritarian parenting style (Nielsen, p. 591)
Children are less depressed, were less aggressive and had higher self-esteem when both parents are authoritative (Nielsen, p. 599)
Children with at least one authoritative parent have been linked to better academic competence and higher grades (Fletcher, Steinberg and Sellers p. and Dornbusch et al., p. 1256)
Children from parents applying an authoritative parenting style do better at school compared to the other parenting styles (Dornbusch et al., p. 1256).
A consistent and authoritative parenting style is effective (Afifi, p. 751). Parenting characteristics such as supportiveness and warmth continue to play an important role in influencing a student’s academic performance (Turner et al., p. 343).
Authoritative parenting is associated with lower levels of substance abuse for children (Handbook, p. 616)
Parenting characteristics such as supportiveness and warmth continue to play an important role in influencing a student’s academic performance (Turner et al., p. 343).
Undesirable outcomes
Children from families applying authoritarian or permissive parenting tend to do less well at school compared to the authoritative parenting style (Dornbusch et al., p. 1256 and Turner, p. 338).
Parenting styles with controlling contexts (such as the authoritarian parenting style) diminish autonomous motivation and enhance controlled motivation (Turner, p. 339). In other words, the authoritarian parenting style limits the ability of children to make their own choices and control their own life.
Balance of outcomes
In determining whether the authoritative parenting style is more effective than the authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, the desirable and undesirable outcomes of both interventions must be considered.
The literature suggests that, regarding academic achievement, the authoritative parenting style is in the interest of the child while the authoritarian and permissive parenting styles are not.
The balance of outcomes is in favour of an authoritarian parenting style.
Recommendation
Taking into account the balance of outcomes, the high effect on children’s well-being and the strength of the evidence, we make the following strong recommendation: For children, authoritative parenting is more effective than other forms of parenting for their well-being.
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